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Introduction Peptides represent an expanding class of biologically active molecules that bridge the gap between small molecules and larger biotherapeutics. Their modular amino acid architecture enables highly selective interactions with receptors, enzymes, and...

Introduction Neural circuits operate through layered codes of ions, metabolites, and peptides that collectively regulate plasticity, stress responses, and circuit homeostasis in experimental preparations. Beyond classical monoamines, neuropeptides signal coordinate...

Introduction Tendons are hierarchically organized collagenous tissues that transmit force from muscle to bone while accommodating repeated mechanical load. In laboratory models, tendon injury typically proceeds through an acute inflammatory phase, a proliferative...

Introduction Cellular energy homeostasis relies on adaptive sensing that reallocates resources when ATP demand outpaces supply. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) coordinates this response by promoting catabolic ATP-generating pathways and tempering ATP-consuming...

Introduction Peptide biology within the central nervous system (CNS) encompasses a diverse repertoire of signaling molecules that operate beyond classical monoamine neurotransmission. Over the past decade, preclinical investigations have mapped peptide-mediated...

Introduction Klotho, a transmembrane glycoprotein named after the Greek goddess who spins the thread of life, has become a focal point in molecular aging and systems biology research. Identified in the late 1990s, it attracted significant attention after early genetic...

Introduction The tripeptide–metal complex GHK-Cu (Glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine–copper) has become a molecule of sustained scientific interest within molecular biology and biochemistry for its multifaceted regulatory functions in oxidative balance, cellular signaling,...

Introduction Intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD) is characterized in experimental settings by extracellular matrix (ECM) erosion, increased catabolic enzyme activity, and persistent inflammatory signaling within the nucleus pulposus (NP). Alongside these...

Introduction Skeletal tissue undergoes continual remodeling through tightly coupled formation and resorption. This balance is maintained by osteoblasts that deposit extracellular matrix and osteoclasts that dissolve mineralized tissue. Perturbations to this...

Introduction Aging biology features coordinated changes in energy metabolism, genome maintenance, proteostasis, and stress signaling. At the nexus of these systems is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a ubiquitous redox cofactor and enzymatic substrate. NAD+...

Introduction Aberrant redox signaling has long been implicated in experimental models of neurodegeneration, where excessive reactive oxygen and nitrogen species disturb proteostasis, mitochondrial function, and kinase networks. Within this context, the non-receptor...

Introduction Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) are characterized by progressive neuronal loss and sustained neuroinflammation, a process in which glial activation contributes to synaptic dysfunction and neuronal decline. In experimental...

Introduction Dopaminergic neuron loss within the nigrostriatal system is a defining feature of Parkinsonian neurodegeneration in laboratory models. Converging evidence indicates that programmed cell death (apoptosis) and chronic glial activation cooperate to erode...

Introduction The interleukin-23 (IL-23) signaling axis is central to immune modulation, influencing chronic inflammatory responses and maintaining Th17-cell activity. Overactivation of this pathway is implicated in inflammatory skin conditions, where persistent...

Introduction Aging remains one of the most significant biological risk factors associated with neurodegenerative conditions. Across the lifespan, progressive molecular alterations—ranging from mitochondrial decline to chronic low-grade inflammation—create a cellular...

Introduction Synucleinopathies such as Parkinson’s disease (PD), dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy are characterized by abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein (αSyn) within neuronal and glial compartments. Mounting evidence suggests that soluble...